Romance languages Totally Explained

Everything about The Romance Language totally explained

The Romance languages (sometimes referred to as Romanic languages, or Neolatin languages) are a branch of the Indo-European language family comprising all the languages that descend from Latin, the language of ancient Rome. They have more than 700 million native speakers worldwide, mainly in the Americas, Europe, and Africa, as well as many smaller regions scattered throughout the world.
   Romance languages have their roots in Vulgar Latin, the popular sociolect of Latin spoken by soldiers, settlers and merchants of the Empire, as distinguished from the Classical form of the language spoken by the Roman upper classes, the form in which the language was generally written. Between 350 BC and 150 AD, the expansion of the Empire, together with its administrative and educational policies, made Latin the dominant native language in continental Western Europe. Latin also exerted a strong influence in southeastern Britain, the Roman province of Africa, and the Balkans north of the Jireček Line.
   During the Empire's decline, and after its fragmentation and collapse in the 5th century, dialects of Latin began to diverge within each local area at an accelerated rate, and eventually evolved into languages of their own right. The overseas empires established by Spain, Portugal and France from the 15th century onward spread their languages to the other continents, to such an extent that about 70% of all Romance speakers today live outside Europe.
   Despite influences from pre-Roman languages and from later invasions, the phonology, morphology, lexicon, and syntax of all Romance languages are predominantly evolutions of Vulgar Latin. In particular, with only one or two exceptions, Romance languages have lost the declension system of Classical Latin and, as a result, have SVO sentence structure and make extensive use of prepositions.

Name

The term "Romance" comes from the Vulgar Latin adverb romanice, derived from Romanicus: used, for instance, in the expression romanice loqui, "to speak in Roman" (that is, the Latin vernacular), contrasted with latine loqui, "to speak in Latin" (Medieval Latin, the conservative version of the language used in writing and formal contexts or as a lingua franca), and with barbarice loqui, "to speak in Barbarian" (the non-Latin languages of the peoples that conquered the Roman Empire). From this adverb the noun romance originated, which applied initially to anything written romanice, or "in the Roman vernacular".
The word romance with the modern sense of romance novel or love affair has the same origin. In the medieval literature of Western Europe, serious writing was usually in Latin, while popular tales, often focusing on love, were composed in the vernacular and came to be called "romances".

Sample

Lexical and grammatical similarities among the Romance languages, and between Latin and each of them, are apparent from the following examples:
ť ť ¹With the variant díser.

²Until the 18th century. ť ³With the disused variant dize.

The main tense and mood distinctions that were made in classical Latin are generally still present in the modern Romance languages, though many are now expressed through compound rather than simple verbs. The passive voice, which was mostly synthetic in classical Latin, has been completely replaced with compound forms.

Features inherited from Vulgar Latin

Romance languages also have a number of features that are not shared with Classical Latin. Most of these are thought to have been inherited from Vulgar Latin. Even though the Romance languages are all derived from Latin, they're arguably much closer to each other than to their common ancestor, owing to a core of common developments. The main difference is the loss of the case system of Classical Latin, an essential feature which allowed great freedom of word order, and has no counterpart in any Romance language except Romanian. In this regard, the distance between any modern Romance language and Latin is comparable to that between Modern English and Old English. While speakers of French, Italian or Spanish, for example, can quickly learn to see through the phonological changes reflected in spelling differences, and thus recognize many Latin words, that'll often fail to understand the meaning of Latin sentences.

Vulgar Latin borrowed many words, often from Germanic languages that replaced words from Classical Latin during the Migration Period, including some basic vocabulary. Notable examples are *blancus (white), which replaced Classical Latin albus in most major languages; *guerra (war), which replaced bellum; and the words for the cardinal directions, where cognates of English "north", "south", "east" and "west" replaced the Classical Latin words borealis (or septentrionalis), australis (or meridionalis), occidentalis, and orientalis, respectively, in the vernacular. (See History of French - The Franks.)

There are definite and indefinite articles, derived from Latin demonstratives and the numeral unus (one).

There are only two grammatical genders, masculine and feminine. The neuter gender of Latin has been lost, mostly merging with the masculine. Exceptions are Romanian, which retains the neuter, and Italian, which while not keeping the neuter gender intact, has residual traces of it represented by some words that switch gender between singular and plural, such as il dito (the finger), plural le dita, inherited from Latin digitum, plural digita.

Apart from gender and number, nouns, adjectives and determiners are not inflected. Cases have generally been lost, though a trace of them survives in the personal pronouns. An exception is Romanian, which retains a combined genitive-dative case.

Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.

Many Latin combining prefixes were incorporated in the lexicon as new roots and verb stems, for example Italian estrarre (to extract) from Latin ex- (out of) and trahere (to drag).

Many Latin constructions involving nominalized verbal forms (for example the use of accusative plus infinitive in indirect discourse and the use of the ablative absolute) were dropped in favor of constructions with subordinate clause. Exceptions can be found in Italian, for example, Latin tempore permittente > Italian tempo permettendo; L. hoc facto > I. fatto ciò.

The normal clause structure is SVO, rather than SOV, and is much less flexible than in Latin.

Owing to sound changes which made it homophonous with the preterite, the Latin future indicative tense was dropped, and replaced with a periphrasis of the form infinitive + present tense of habēre (to have). Eventually, this structure was reanalysed as a new future tense.

In a similar process, an entirely new conditional form was created.

While the synthetic passive voice of classical Latin was abandoned in favour of periphrastic constructions, most of the active voice remained in use. However, several tenses have changed meaning, especially subjunctives. For example:

The Latin pluperfect indicative became a conditional in Catalan and Sicilian, and an imperfect subjunctive in Spanish.
The Latin pluperfect subjunctive developed into an imperfect subjunctive in all languages except Romansh, where it became a conditional, and Romanian, where it became a pluperfect indicative.
The Latin preterite subjunctive, together with the future perfect indicative, became a future subjunctive in Old Spanish, Portuguese, and Galician.
The Latin imperfect subjunctive became a personal infinitive in Portuguese and Galician.

Many Romance languages have two verbs "to be", derived from the Latin stare (mostly used for temporary states) and esse (mostly used for essential attributes). In French, however, stare and esse had become ester and estre by the late Middle Ages. Owing to phonetic developments, there were the forms êter and être, which eventually merged to être, and the distinction was lost. In Italian, the two verbs share the same past participle, stato. See Romance copula, for further information. For a more detailed illustration of how the verbs have changed with respect to classical Latin, see Romance verbs.

Sound changes

The vocabularies of Romance languages have undergone considerable change since their birth, by various phonological processes that were characteristic of each language. Those changes applied more or less systematically to all words, but were often conditioned by the sound context, morphological structure, or regularizing tendencies.
   Most languages have lost sounds from the original Latin words. French, in particular, elision progressed more than in any other of the languages (although its conservative etymological spelling doesn't always make this apparent). In general, all final vowels were dropped, and sometimes also the preceding consonant: thus Latin lupus and luna became Italian lupo and luna but French loup [lu] and lune [lyn]. (See also Use of the circumflex in French.) Catalan, Occitan, many Northern Italian dialects, and Romanian (Daco-Romanian) lost the final vowels in most masculine nouns and adjectives, but retained them in the feminine. Other languages, including Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Galician and Romanian have retained those vowels.
   Some languages have lost the final vowel -e from verbal infinitives, for example dīcere → Portuguese dizer (to say). Other common cases of apocope are the verbal endings, for example Latin amāt → Italian ama (he loves), amābam → amavo (I loved), amābat → amava (he loved), amābatis → amavate (you loved), etc.
   Sounds were often lost in the middle of words, too; for example Latin Luna → Galician and Portuguese Lua (Moon), crēdere → Spanish creer (to believe).
   On the other hand, some languages have added epenthetic vowels to words in certain contexts. Characteristic of the Iberian Romance languages is the insertion of a prosthetic e at the start of Latin words that began with s + consonant, such as sperō → espero (I hope). French originally did the same, but later dropped the s: spatula → arch. espaule → épaule (shoulder). In the case of Italian, a special article, lo for the definite and uno for the indefinite, is used for masculine words that begin with s + consonant words (sbaglio, "mistake" → lo sbaglio, "the mistake"), as well as all masculine words beginning with z (for example clusters /ts/ or /dz/) zaino, "backpack" → lo zaino, "the backpack".
   A characteristic feature of the writing systems of almost all Romance languages is that the Latin letters c and g — which originally always represented the "hard" consonants /k/ and /g/ respectively — now represent "soft" consonants when they come before e, i, or y. This is due to a general palatalization of /k/ and /ɡ/ that occurred in the transition to Vulgar Latin. Since the written form of all the affected words was tied to the classical language, the shift was accommodated by a change in the pronunciation rules. The soft sounds of c and g vary from language to language. The consonant t, which was also palatalized, changes pronunciation in French (and English) orthography, but in the other Romance languages the spelling was altered to match the new sound. An exception is Sardinian, whose plosives remained hard before e and i in many words.
   The distinctions of vowel length present in Classical Latin were lost in most Romance languages (an exception is Friulian), and partly replaced with qualitative contrasts such as monophthong versus diphthong (Italian, Spanish; French to a lesser extent), or close vowel versus open vowel (as in Portuguese, Galician, Occitan and Catalan).
   For most languages in this family, consonant length is no longer phonemically distinctive or present. However some languages of Italy (Italian, Sardinian and Sicilian) do have long consonants like /bb/, /kk/, /dd/, etc., where the doubling indicates a short hold before the consonant is released, in many cases with distinctive lexical value: for example note /ˈnɔ.te/ (notes) vs. notte /ˈnɔt.te/ (night), cade /ˈka.de/ (s/he, it falls) vs. cadde /ˈkad.de/ (s/he, it fell). They may even occur at the beginning of words in Romanesco, Neapolitan and Sicilian, and are occasionally indicated in writing, for example Sicilian cchiù (more), and ccà (here). In general, the consonants /b/, /ts/, and /dz/ are long at the start of a word, while the archiphoneme is realised as a trill /r/ in the same position.
   The double consonants of Piedmontese exist only after stressed /ə/, written ë, and are not etymological: vëdde (Latin videre, to see), sëcca (Latin sicca, dry, feminine of sech). In standard Catalan and Occitan, there exists a geminate sound /lː/ written ŀl (Catalan) or ll (Occitan), but it's usually pronounced as a simple sound in colloquial (and even some formal) speech in both languages.
   For more detailed descriptions of sound changes, see the articles Vulgar Latin, History of French, History of Portuguese, Latin to Romanian sound changes, and Linguistic history of Spanish.

Lexical stress

While word stress was rigorously predictable in classical Latin, this is no longer the case in most Romance languages, and stress differences can be enough to distinguish between words. For example, Italian Papa [ˈpa.pa] (Pope) and papà [pa.ˈpa] (daddy), or the Spanish imperfect subjunctive cantara ([ifhe] sang) and future cantará ([he] will sing). However, the main function of Romance stress appears to be a clue for speech segmentation — namely to help the listener identify the word boundaries in normal speech, where inter-word spaces are usually absent.
The position of the stressed syllable in a word generally varies from word to word in each Romance language. Stress usually remains fixed on its assigned syllable within any language, however, even as the word is inflected. It is usually restricted to one of the last three syllables in the word, although Italian verb forms can violate this (for example teléfonano 'they telephone'). The limit may be exceeded also by verbs with attached clitics, provided the clitics are counted as part of the word; for example Spanish entregándomelo [en.tre.ˈɣan.do.me.lo] (delivering it to me), Italian mettiamocene [me.ˈtːjaː.mo.ʧe.ne] (let's put some of it in there), or Portuguese dávamo-vo-lo [ˈda.vɐ.mu.vu.lu] (we were giving it to you).

Other shared features

The Romance languages also share a number of features that were not the result of common inheritance, but rather of various cultural diffusion processes in the Middle Ages — such as literary diffusion, commercial and military interactions, political domination, influence of the Catholic Church, and (especially in later times) conscious attempts to "purify" them in accordance with Classical Latin. Some of those features have in fact spread to other non-Romance (and even non-Indo-European) languages, chiefly in Europe. Some of these "late origin" shared features are:

Most Romance languages have polite forms of address that change the person and/or number of 2nd person subjects (T-V distinction), such as the tu/vous contrast in French, the tu/Lei contrast in Italian, the tu/dumneavoastră (from dominus + vostre, literally meaning "your Lordship") in Romanian or the tú (or vos) /usted contrast in Spanish.

They all have a large collection of learned hellenisms and latinisms, with prefixes, stems, and suffixes retained or reintroduced from Greek and Latin, and used to coin new words. Most of these are also used in English, for example tele-, poly-, meta-, pseudo-, dis-, ex-, post-, -scope, -logy, -tion, though their spelling may differ slightly; for example, poly- becomes poli- in Romanian, Italian and Spanish.

During the Renaissance, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish and a few other Romance languages developed a progressive aspect which didn't exist in Latin. In French, progressive constructions remain very limited, the imperfect aspect generally being preferred, as in Latin.

Many Romance languages now have a verbal construction analogous to the present perfect tense of English. In some, it has taken the place of the old preterite (at least in the vernacular); in others, the two coexist with somewhat different meanings (cf. English I did vs. I have done). A few examples:

preterite only: Galician, Sicilian, some dialects of Spanish;
preterite and present perfect: Occitan, Portuguese, standard Spanish;
present perfect predominant, preterite now literary: French, several dialects of Italian and Spanish.

Writing systems

The Romance languages have kept the writing system of Latin, adapting it to their evolution. One exception was Romanian before the 19th century, where, after the Roman retreat, literacy was reintroduced through the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet by Slavic influences. Also the non-Christian populations of Spain used the systems of their culture languages (Arabic and Hebrew) to write Romance languages such as Ladino and Mozarabic in aljamiado.

Letters

The Romance languages are written with the classical Latin alphabet of 22 letters — A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X, Y, Z — subsequently modified and augmented in various ways. In particular, the letters K and W are seldom used in most Romance languages, only for unassimilated foreign names and words.
   While most of the 22 basic Latin letters have maintained their phonetic value, for some of them it has diverged considerably; and the new letters added since the Middle Ages have been put to different uses in different scripts. Some letters, notably H and Q, have been variously combined in digraphs or trigraphs (see below) to represent phonetic phenomena not recorded in Latin, or to get around previously established spelling conventions.
   The spelling rules of most Romance languages are fairly simple, but subject to considerable regional variation. To a first approximation, the phonetic values of the letters can be summarized as follows:
ť C: Generally a "hard" [k], but "soft" (fricative or affricate) before e, i, or y.

   G: Generally a "hard" [ɡ], but "soft" (fricative or affricate) before e, i, or y. In some languages, like Spanish, the hard g is pronounced as a fricative [ɣ] after vowels. In Romansch, the soft g is a voiced palatal plosive [ɟ]. ť H: Silent in most languages; used to form various digraphs. But represents [h] in Romanian and Gascon Occitan.

   J: Represents a fricative in most languages, or the palatal approximant [j] in Romansh and in several of the languages of Italy. Italian doesn't use this letter in native words. Usually pronounced like the soft g (except in Romansch and the languages of Italy). ť Q: As in Latin, its phonetic value is that of a hard c, and in native words it's always followed by a (sometimes silent) u. Romanian doesn't use this letter in native words.

   S: Generally voiceless [s], but voiced [z] between vowels in most languages. In Spanish, Romanian, Galician and several varieties of Italian, however, it's always pronounced voiceless. At the end of syllables, it may represent special allophonic pronunciations. ť W: No Romance language uses this letter in native words, with the exception of Walloon.

   X: Its pronunciation is rather variable, both between and within languages. In the Middle Ages, the languages of Iberia used this letter to denote the voiceless postalveolar fricative [ʃ], which is still the case in Modern Catalan. With the Renaissance the classical pronunciation [ks] — or similar consonant clusters, such as [ɡz], [ɡs], or [kθ] — were frequently reintroduced in latinisms and hellenisms. In Venetian it represents [z], and in Ligurian the voiced postalveolar fricative [ʒ]. Italian doesn't use this letter in native words. ť Y: This letter isn't used in most languages, with the prominent exceptions of French and Spanish, where it represents [j] before vowels (or various similar fricatives such as the palatal fricative [ʝ], in Spanish), and the vowel or semivowel [i] elsewhere.

   Z: In most languages it represents the sound [z], but in Italian it denotes the affricates [ʣ] and [ʦ] (which, although not normally in contrast, are usually strictly assigned lexically in any single variety: Standard Italian gazza 'magpie' always with [ddz], mazza 'club, mace' only with [tts]), and in Galician and Spanish it denotes either the voiceless dental fricative [θ] or [s].
   Otherwise, letters that are not combined as digraphs generally have the same sounds as in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), whose design was, in fact, greatly influenced by the Romance spelling systems.

Digraphs and trigraphs

Since most Romance languages have more sounds than can be accommodated in the Roman Latin alphabet they all resort to the use of digraphs and trigraphs — combinations of two or three letters with a single sound value. The concept (but not the actual combinations) derives from Classical Latin; which used, for example, TH, PH, and CH when transliterating the Greek letters "θ", "ϕ" (later "φ"), and "χ" (These were once aspirated sounds in Greek before changing to corresponding fricatives and the represented what sounded to the Romans like an /ʰ/ following /t/, /p/, and /k/ respectively. Some of the digraphs used in modern scripts are:
ť CI: used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy and Romanian to represent /ʧ/ before A, O, or U.

   CH: used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy, Romanian, Romansh and Sardinian to represent /k/ before E or I; /ʧ/ in Occitan, Spanish and Galician; [c] in Romansh before A, O or U; and /ʃ/ in most other languages. ť DD: used in Sicilian and Sardinian to represent the voiced retroflex plosive /ɖ/. In recent history more accurately transcribed as DDH.

   DJ: used in Catalan and Walloon for /ʤ/. ť GI: used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy and Romanian to represent /ʤ/ before A, O, or U.

   GH: used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy, Romanian, Romansh and Sardinian to represent /ɡ/ before E or I, and in Galician for the voiceless pharyngeal fricative /ħ/ (not standard sound). ť GL: used in Romansh before consonants and at the end of words for /ʎ/.

   GLI: used in Italian and Romansh for /ʎ/. ť GN: used in French, Italian, Romance languages in Italy and Romansh for /ɲ/, as in champignon or gnocchi.

   GU: used before E or I to represent /ɡ/ or /ɣ/ in all Romance languages except Italian, Romance languages in Italy and Romanian. ť IG: used at the end of word in Catalan for /ʧ/, as in maig, safareig or enmig.

   IX: used between vowels or at the end of word in Catalan for /ʃ/, as in caixa or calaix. ť LH: used in Portuguese and Occitan /ʎ/.

   LL: used in Spanish, Catalan, Galician, Norman and Dgèrnésiais, originally for /ʎ/ which has merged in some cases with /j/. Represents /l/ in French unless it follows I (i) when it represents /j/ (or /ʎ/ in some dialects). It's used in Occitan for a long /ll/ ť L·L: used in Catalan for a geminate consonant /ll/.

   NH: used in Portuguese and Occitan for /ɲ/, used in official Galician for /ŋ/ . ť N-: used in Piedmontese and Ligurian for /ŋ/ between two vowels.

   NY: used in Catalan for /ɲ/. ť QU: represents [kw] in Italian and Romance languages in Italy; [k] in French and Spanish; [k] (before e or i) or [kw] (normally before a or o) in Occitan, Catalan and Portuguese.

   RR: used between vowels in several languages (Occitan, Catalan, Spanish...) to denote a trilled /r/ or a guttural R, instead of the flap /ɾ/. ť SC: used before E or I in Italian and Romance languages in Italy for /ʃ/, and in French and Spanish as /s/ in words of certain etymology.

   SCH: used in Romansh for [ʃ] or [ʒ]. ť SCI: used in Italian and Romance languages in Italy to represent /ʃ/ before A, O, or U.

   SH: used in Aranese Occitan for /ʃ/. ť SS: used in French, Portuguese, Piedmontese, Occitan and Catalan for /s/ between vowels.

   TG: used in Romansh for [c]. In Catalan is used for /ʤ/ between vowels, as in metge or fetge. ť TH: used in Jèrriais for /θ/ (as in English "thick"); used in Aranese for either /t/ or /ʧ/.

   TJ: used between vowels and before A, O or U, in Catalan for /ʤ/, as in sotjar or mitjó. ť TSCH: used in Romansh for [ʧ].

   TX: used at the beginnig or at the end of word or between vowels in Catalan for /ʧ/, as in txec, esquitx or atxa. While the digraphs CH, PH, RH and TH were at one time used in many words of Greek origin, most languages have now replaced them with C/QU, F, R and T. Only French has kept these etymological spellings, which now represent /k/ or /ʃ/, /f/, /ʀ/ and /t/, respectively.

Double consonants

Gemination, in the languages where it occurs, is usually indicated by doubling the consonant, except when it doesn't contrast phonemically with the corresponding short consonant, in which case gemination isn't indicated. In Jèrriais, long consonants are marked with an apostrophe: S'S is a long /zz/, SS'S is a long /ss/, and T'T is a long /tt/. The double consonants in French orthography, however, are merely etymological.

Diacritics and special characters

Romance languages use various diacritics, especially on vowels, to mark special pronunciations, or to distinguish between homophones. The following are the most common.

Palatalization: some historical palatalizations are indicated with the cedilla (ç) in French, Catalan, and Portuguese. Romanian uses a diacritical comma with the same purpose (ș, ț). In Spanish and several other world languages influenced by it, the grapheme ñ represents a palatal nasal consonant.

Diaeresis: when a vowel and another letter that would normally be combined into a digraph with a single sound are exceptionally pronounced apart, this is often indicated with a diaeresis mark on the vowel. In the Spanish word pingüino (penguin), the letter u is pronounced, although normally it's silent in the digraph gu when this is followed by an e or an i. Other Romance languages that use the diaeresis in this fashion are French, Catalan, and (Brazilian) Portuguese.

Homophones: words that are pronounced exactly or nearly the same way, but have different meanings, can be differentiated with an acute (as in Spanish, where si means "if" while sí means "yes", "himself", "herself", "itself", or "themselves") or with a grave accent (French, in which ou means "or" and où means "where", as well as Italian and Catalan). The circumflex can also have this function in French, sometimes. Often, such words are monosyllables, the accented one being phonetically stressed, while the unaccented one is a clitic; examples are the Spanish clitics de, se, and te (a preposition and two personal pronouns), versus the stressed words dé, sé, and té (two verbs and a noun).

Stress: the stressed vowel in a polysyllabic word may be indicated with the acute, é (in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan), or the grave accent, è (Italian, Catalan). The orthographies of French and Romanian don't mark stress. In Italian orthography, indicating stress with a diacritic is only required when it falls on the last syllable of a word.

Vowel quality: the system of marking close-mid vowels with an acute, é, and open-mid vowels with a grave accent, è, is widely used (in Catalan, French, Italian, etc.) Portuguese, however, uses the circumflex (ê) for the former, and the acute (é), for the latter.

Nasality: Portuguese marks nasal vowels with a tilde (ã) when they occur before other vowels. While not frequent among the other Romance languages, this orthographic convention has been adopted by several indigenous languages of the Americas, for instance the Guarani. Less widespread diacritics in the Romance languages are the breve (in Romanian, ă) and the ring (in Wallon and the Bolognese dialect of Emiliano-Romagnolo, å). The French orthography includes the etymological ligatures œ and (more rarely) æ. The circumflex frequently has an etymological value in this language, as well; see Use of the circumflex in French, for further information.

Upper and lower case

Most languages are written with a mixture of two distinct but phonetically identical variants or "cases" of the alphabet: majuscule ("uppercase" or "capital letters"), derived from Roman stone-carved letter shapes, and minuscule ("lowercase"), derived from Carolingian writing and Medieval quill pen handwriting which were later adapted by printers in the 15th and 16th centuries.
In particular, all Romance languages presently capitalize (use uppercase for the first letter of) the following words: the first word of each complete sentence, most words in names of people, places, and organizations, and most words in titles of books. The Romance languages don't follow the German practice of capitalizing all nouns including common ones. Unlike English, the names of months (except in European Portuguese), days of the weeks, and derivatives of proper nouns are usually not capitalized: thus, in Italian one capitalizes Francia ("France") and Francesco ("Francis"), but not francese ("French") or francescano ("Franciscan"). However, each language has some exceptions to this general rule.

Vocabulary comparison

The table below provides a vocabulary comparison that illustrates a number of examples of sound shifts that have occurred between Latin and the main Romance languages, along with a selection of minority languages.

English	Latin	Catalan	French	Galician	Italian	Norman Jèrriais	Venetian	Lombard (literary Milanese)	Piedmontese (West-Piedmont)
Apple	[Mattiana] Mala; Pomum (fruit)	Poma	Pomme	Mazá	Mela	Poumme	Pomo	Pomm/Pumm	Pom
Arm	Bracchium	Braç	Bras	Brazo	Braccio	Bras	Braso	Brasc	Brass
Arrow	Sagitta; Frankish Fleuka	Fletxa / Sageta	Flèche	Frecha / Seta	Freccia / Saetta	Èrchelle	Frecia	Frecia	Flecia
Bed	Lectus	Llit	Lit	Leito / Cama	Letto	Liet	Leto / Branda	Lecc	Let
Black	Niger	Negre	Noir	Negro	Nero	Nièr	Nero	Negher	Nèir
Book	Liber	Llibre	Livre / Bouquin	Libro	Libro	Livre	Libro	Liber/Libor	Lìber
Breast	Pectus	Pit	Poitrine	Peito	Petto	Estonma	Peto	Stòmi	Stòmi
Cat	Feles; V.L. Cattus	Gat	Chat (kat, khat, cat)	Gato	Gatto	Cat	Gato	Gatt	Gat
Chair	Sella; Greek Kathedra	Cadira	Chaise	Cadeira	Sedia	Tchaîse	Carega	Cadrega	Cadrega / Carea
Cold (adj.)	Frigidus	Fred	Froid	Frío	Freddo	Fraid	Fredo	Fregg	Frèid
Cow	Vacca	Vaca	Vache	Vaca	Vacca / Mucca	Vaque	Vaca	Vaca	Vaca
Day	Dies (adj. Diurnus)	Dia / Jorn	Jour	Día	Giorno / Dì	Jour	Di	Dì	Di
Dead	Mortuus	Mort	Mort	Morto	Morto	Mort	Morto	Mort	Mòrt
Die	Mori	Morir	Mourir	Morrer	Morire	Mouothi	Morir	Morì/Mor	Meuire/Murì
Family	Familia	Família	Famille	Familia	Famiglia	Famil'ye	Faméia	Familia	Famija
Finger	Digitus	Dit	Doigt	Dedo	Dito	Dé	Déo / Dièl	Dii	Dil
Flower	Flos	Flor	Fleur	Flor	Fiore	Flieur	Fior	Fiôr	Fior
Give	Dare	Donar	Donner	Dar	Dare	Donner / Bailli	Dar	Dà	Dé
Go	Ire; Ambulare (to walk); V.L. Ambitare	Anar	Aller	Ir	Andare	Aller	Andar / Ndar	Ndà	Andé
Gold	Aurum	Or	Or	Ouro	Oro	Or	Oro	Or	Òr
Hand	Manus	Mà	Main	Man	Mano	Main	Man	Man	Man
High	Altus	Alt	Haut	Alto	Alto	Haut	Alto	Olt	Àut
House	Domus; Casa (hut)	Casa	Maison	Casa	Casa	Maîson	Vello	Vecchio	Vyi	Vécio	Vegg	Vej
One	Unus	Un	Un	Un	Uno	Ieune	Uno	Vun	Un
Pear	Pirum	Pera	Poire	Pera	Pera	Paithe	Péra	Pera	Pruss
Play	Ludere; Jocare (to joke)	Jugar	Jouer	Xogar	Giocare	Jouer	Xugàr	Giogà/Giugà	Gieughe/Giughé
Ring	Anellus	Anell	Anneau	Anel	Anello	Anné / Bague	Anel / Aneło	Anèl	Anel
River	Flumen; Rivus (small river)	Riu	Rivière / Fleuve	Río	Fiume	Riviéthe	Fiume / Rio	Riva/Riu	Fium / Ri
Sew	Consuere	Cosir	Coudre	Coser	Cucire	Couôtre	Cuxir	Cusì	Cuse / Cusì
Snow	Nix	Neu	Neige	Neve	Neve	Né	Néve	Nev/Fiòca	Fiòca
Take	Capio; Prehendere (to sieze)	Agafar / Prendre	Prendre	Prender	Prendere	Prendre	Tor / Ciapàr	Ciapà	Pijé
That	Ille; V.L. Eccu + Ille	Aquell	Quel	Aquel	Quello	Chu	Quel	Quell	Col
The	Ille	el/la/lo els/les/los Balearic: es/sa/so ets/ses/sos	le/la les	o/a os/as	il/lo/la i/gli/le	lé/la	el/la i	el/la i	ël/la ij/le
Throw	Jacere; V.L. Lanceare (to throw a weapon); Adtirare	Llençar / Tirar	Lancer / Tirer	Lanzar / Guindar	Lanciare	Pitchi	Tiràr	Trà	Tiré/Campé
Thursday	dies Jovis	Dijous	Jeudi	Xoves	Giovedì	Jeudi	Giòvedi	Gioedì	Giòbia
Tree	Arbor	Arbre	Arbre	Árbore	Albero	Bouais	Àlbaro	Pianta/Albor	Pianta / Erbo
Two	Duo	Dos / Dues	Deux	Dous / Dúas	Due	Deux	Du / Dó	Duu / Doo	Doi / Doe
Urn	Urna	Urna	Urne	Urna	Urna	Vas	Urna	Urna
Voice	Vox	Veu	Voix	Voz	Voce	Vouaix	Voce	Vôs	Vos
Where	Ubi; Unde (where from)	On	Où	Onde / U	Dove	Ioù / Où'est	Ndó / Ndóe	Ndoe	Andoa / Anté
White	Albus; Frankish Blank	Blanc	Blanc	Branco	Bianco	Blianc	Bianco	Bianch	Bianch
Who	Quis	Qui	Qui	Quen	Chi	Tchi	Chi / Ci	Chi	Chi
World	Mundus	Món	Monde	Mundo	Mondo	Monde	Mondo	Mond/Mund	Mond
Yellow	Flavus; Galbinus; Amarus (bitter)	Groc	Jaune	Amarelo	Giallo	Jaune	Gialo	Giald	Giàun
English	Latin	Catalan	French	Galician	Italian	Norman Jèrriais	Venetian	Lombard (literary Milanese)	Piedmontese (West-Piedmont)

English	Latin	Occitan	Portuguese	Romanian	Romansh	Sardinian	Sicilian	Spanish
Apple	[Mattiana] Mala; Pomum (fruit)	Poma	Maçã	Măr	Mail	Mela	Pumu	Manzana / Poma
Arm	Bracchium	Braç	Braço	Braț	Bratsch	Bratzu	Vrazzu	Brazo
Arrow	Sagitta Frankish Fleuka	Sageta / Flècha	Seta / Flecha	Săgeată	Frizza	Fretza	Fileccia	Flecha / Saeta
Bed	Lectus	Lièch (lièit)	Cama / Leito	Pat	Letg	Lettu	Lettu	Cama / Lecho
Black	Niger	Negre	Preto / Negro	Negru	Nair	Nieddu / Nigru	Nìguru / Nìuru	Negro / Prieto
Book	Liber	Libre	Livro	Carte	Cudesch	Libru / Lìburu	Libbru	Libro
Breast	Pectus	Pièch (pièit)	Peito	Piept	Pèz	Pettus	Pettu	Pecho
Cat	Feles; V.L. Cattus	Cat (gat, chat (kat, khat, cat))	Gato	Pisică	Giat	Gattu / Battu	Gattu / Jattu	Gato
Chair	Sella; Cathedra	Cadièra (chadiera, chadèira)	Cadeira	Scaun	Sutga	Cadira / Cadrea	Seggia	Silla
Cold (adj.)	Frigidus	Freg (freid, hred)	Frio	Frig	Fraid	Friu	Friddu	Frío
Cow	Vacca	Vaca (vacha)	Vaca	Vacă	Vatga	Bacca	Vacca	Vaca
Day	Dies (adj. Diurnus)	Jorn / Dia	Dia	Zi	Di	Die	Jornu	Día
Dead	Mortuus	Mòrt	Morto	Mort	Mort	Mortu / Mottu	Mortu	Muerto
Die	Mori	Morir	Morrer	(a) Muri	Murir	Morrer	Muriri / Mòriri	Morir
Family	Familia	Familha	Família	Familie	Famiglia	Famìlia	Famigghia	Familia
Finger	Digitus	Det	Dedo	Deget	Det	Didu	Jìditu	Dedo
Flower	Flos	Flor	Flor	Floare	Flur	Frore	(S)Ciuri / Hjuri	Flor
Give	Dare	Donar / Dar	Doar / Dar	(a) Da	Dar	Dare	Dari / Dunari	Donar	(a) Umbla / (a) Merge	Ir	Andare	Jiri	Ir / Andar	Înalt	Aut	Artu / Attu	Àutu	Alto
House	Domus; Casa (hut)	Ostal (ostau) / Maison / Casa	Casa	Casă	Chasa	Domu	Casa	Casa
I	Ego	Ieu / Jo	Eu	Eu	Jau	Deu	Iu / Jo / Ju / Eu / Jia	Yo
Ink	Atramentum; Tincta (dye)	Tencha (tinta) / Encra	Tinta	Cerneală	Tinta	Tinta	Inga	Tinta
January	Januarius	Genièr (girvèir)	Janeiro	Ianuarie	Schaner	Ghennarzu / Bennarzu	Jinnaru	Enero
Juice	Sucus	Suc	Suco / Sumo	Suc	Suc	Sutzu	Sucu	Jugo / Zumo
Key	Clavis	Clau	Chave	Cheie	Clav	Crae	Chiavi / Ciavi	Llave / Clave
Language	Lingua	Lenga	Língua	Limbă	Lingua	Lingua	Lingua	Lengua
Man	Homo	Òme	Homem	Bărbat / Om	Um	Homine	Omu / Òminu	Hombre
Moon	Luna	Luna (lua)	Lua	Lună	Glina	Luna	Luna	Luna
English	Latin	Occitan	Portuguese	Romanian	Romansh	Sardinian	Sicilian	Spanish
Night	Nox	Nuèch (nuèit)	Noite	Noapte	Notg	Notte	Notti	Noche
Old	Vetus	Vièlh	Velho / Bătrân	Vegl	Betzu / Sèneghe / Vedústus	Vecchiu / Vecciu	Viejo
One	Unus	Un	Um	Unu	In	Unu	Unu	Un / Uno
Pear	Pirum	Pera	Pêra	Pară	Pair	Pira	Piru	Pera
Play	Ludere; Jocare (to joke)	Jogar (jugar, joar)	Jogar	(a se) Juca	Giugar	Zogare	Jucari	Jugar
Ring	Anellus	Anèl (anèth, anèu)	Anel	Inel	Anè	Aneddu	Aneddu	Anillo
River	Flumen; Rivus (small river)	Riu / Flume	Rio/ Rîu	Flum	Riu / Frùmine	(S)Ciumi / Hjumi	Río
Sew	Consuere	Cóser	Coser	(a) Coase	Cuser	Cosire	Cùsiri	Coser
Snow	Nix	Nèu	Neve	Nea / Zăpadă	Naiv	Nie	Nivi	Nieve
Take	Capio; Prehendere (to sieze)	Prene / Pilhar/ Tomar	Prinde / Lua	Pigghiari	Tomar / Prender	Aquel
The	Ille	lo/la los/las (lei[s], lu/li)	o/a os/as	-ul/-a -i/-le	il/la ils/las	su/sa sos/sas (is)	Trair	Ghettare / Bettare	Lanzari / Jittari	Lanzar / Tirar / Echar
Thursday	dies Jovis	Dijòus (dijaus)	Quinta-feira	Joi	Gievgia	Zobia	Jovi / Juvidìa	Jueves
Tree	Arbor	Arbre (aubre)	Árvore	Arbore / Pom/ Copac	Planta	Àrvore	Àrvuru	Árbol
Two	Duo	Dos / Doas (dus, duas)	Dois / Duas	Doi	Dua	Duos, Duas	Dui	Dos
Urn	Urna	Urna	Urna	Urnă	Urna	Urna	Urna	Urna
Voice	Vox	Votz	Voz	Voce, Glas	Vusch	Boghe	Vuci	Voz
Where	Ubi; Unde (where from)	Ont (dont)	Onde	Unde	Nua	Ue/Aundi	Unni	Donde
White	Albus (Frankish Blank)	Blanc	Branco	Alb	Alv	Àbru	Biancu / Vrancu / Jancu	Blanco
Who	Quis	Qual (quau), Qui, Cu	Quem	Cine	Tgi	Kini/Ki/Chie	Cui (cu')	Quien
World	Mundus	Mond	Mundo	Lume	Mund	Mundu	Munnu	Mundo
Yellow	Flavus; Galbinus; Amarus (bitter)	Jaune	Amarelo	Galben	Mellen	Grogu	Giarnu	Amarillo
English	Latin	Occitan	Portuguese	Romanian	Romansh	Sardinian	Sicilian	Spanish

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